Phonological Processes:
The Essentials

WHAT ARE PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES?

Typical patterns of error used by all children when they try to imitate adults as they are developing speech.

WHAT IS A PHONOLOGICAL DISORDER?

When a child uses incorrect speech patterns by making errors on sound patterns or sound blends. (see typical phonological processes chart below)

WHAT CAUSES IT?

Correct speech becomes easier as a child's tongue and motor skills mature and gain experience.

Sometimes a child holds onto these "baby" or "immature" patterns of speech simply because they are not aware that they are saying sounds wrong.

If a child continues to use these phonological processes, the result is a developmental phonological disorder.

One of the most common types is a pattern known as "velar fronting" or "fronting" for short.

This happens when a child says a sound in the front of their mouth that should be made in the back. Typically...

/k/ is replaced with /t/

/cup/ is pronounced /tup/
/pack/ is pronounced /pat/

and...

/g/ is replaced with /d/

/go/ is pronounced /doh/
/beg/ is pronounced /bed/

...these examples show that phonological processes can happen at the beginning and ends of words but there are many more variations to this disorder.

In my daughter's case, she replaces some front sounds with back sounds. Sometimes she will say "bike" when she is really asking for a "bite" of food. This is called backing.

Fortunately for her, her mom and dad are Speech Pathologists so we know it's O.K. for now but...

...we'll be keeping an eye on it.

This chart can help you keep an eye on your child's speech if you suspect they are using a phonological process.

Our free speech screener can also give you immediate feedback about whether your childs speech indicates this type of disorder.

Get Your Free Copy of this Chart

TYPICAL PHONOLOGICAL PROCESS DEVELOPMENT CHART

Substitution Processes - when one class of sounds is replaced for another class of sounds.
Phonological Process	What is Happening?	Examples	Gone by Age

Stopping (Stop)	When a child substitutes a stop (b, p, d, t, g, k) for a fricative (s, z, f, v, th’s, h, sh,and zh as in measure)	/pat/ for fat	3 yrs.
		/pine/ for vine	3 1/2 yrs.
		/tear/ for chair	4 1/2 yrs.
		/dob/ for job	4 1/2 yrs.
		/take/ for shake	4 1/2 yrs.
		/tope/ for soap	3 yrs.
		/pum/ for thumb	5 yrs.

Deaffrication	When a child replaces an affricate (ch, dz as in judge) with a stop (b, p, d, t, g, k) or a fricative (s, z, f, v,th’s, h, sh, and zh as in measure)	/tear/ for chair	Not Available
		/sop/ for chop
		/karm/ for charm
		/dob/ for job
		/dim/ for gym
		/zan/ for Jan

Velar Fronting (VF)	When a child replaces a velar sound (k, g, ng) with a sound that is made toward the front of the mouth. Fronting usually happens more often in the beginning of words compared to the end	/top/ for cop	3 1/2 yrs.
		/reen/ for ring	3 1/2 yrs.
		/tup/ for cup	3 1/2 yrs.
		/doh/ for go	3 1/2 yrs.
		/tum/ for gum	3 1/2 yrs.

Depalatalization (Dep)	When a child substitutes an alveolar fricative (s, z) for a palatal fricative (sh, and zh as in measure)	/tek/ for check	Not Available
		/matsiz/ for matches
		/dudz/ for judge
		/dane/ for Jane

Backing *This occurs in children with severe phonological disorders.	When a child substitutes a front sound (t, d) with a back sound (k, g)	/kop/ for top	Not Available
		/hope/ for soap
		/gime/ for dime
		/bike/ for bite

Liquid Gliding (LG)	When a child substitutes a glide sound (w, y) for a liquid sound (r, l)	/wabbit/ for rabbit	5 yrs.
		/wook/ for look
		/wing/ for ring	5 yrs.
		/yeef/ for leaf
	This can also occur in consonant clusters	/bwed/ for bread	5 yrs.
		/gween/ for green	5 yrs.
		/bwack/ for black
		/gwas/ for glass

Vocalization (Voc)	This is also known as vowelization and happens when a child substitutes a vowel for a syllabic liquid	/simpo/ for simple	Not Available
		/abuh/ for able
		/tabo/ for table
		/papo/ for paper

Syllable Structure Processes – sound changes that modify the syllabic structure of words.
Phonological Process	What is Happening?	Examples	Gone by Age

Unstressed Syllable Deletion (USD)	When a child doesn’t say the syllable with the least amount of stress	/medo/ for tomato	4 yrs.
		/tefon/ for telephone	4 yrs.
		/efant/ for elephant	4 yrs.
		/nana/ for banana	4 yrs.
		/side/ for outside	4 yrs.

Reduplication (Redup)	When a child repeats a syllable of a target word which creates a multi-syllabic word form. Reduplication can be Total or Partial	Total
		/baba/ for bottle	2 1/2 yrs.
		/dada/ for dog	2 1/2 yrs.
		/tata/ for television	2 1/2 yrs.
		Partial
		/bada/ for bottle	2 1/2 yrs.
		/dadi/ for dog	2 1/2 yrs.
		/tatu/ for television	2 1/2 yrs.

Dimunization (Dim)	When a child adds an “-ee” and sometimes a consonant + “-ee” to a target word.	/cup-ee/ for cup	Not Available
		/book-ee/ for book
		/doll-ee/ for doll

Epenthesis	When a child says an unstressed vowel usually “uh” between two consonants.	/suh-poon/ for spoon	Not Available
		/cup-uh/ for cup
		/puh-late/ for plate

Final-Consonant Deletion (FCD)	When a child leaves a single consonant or consonant cluster off of the end of a word. This can happen on words that end with a vowel (open-syllable word) or on words that end in consonants (closed-syllable word)	Open
		/ma/ for mom	3 yrs. 3 mos.
		/da/ for dog	3 yrs. 3 mos.
		/wag-ih/ for wagon	3 yrs. 3 mos.
		Closed
		/boo/ for books	3 yrs. 3 mos.
		/ha/ for hand	3 yrs. 3 mos.

Initial Consonant Deletion (ICD) *This is more uncommon but can occur in children with severe phonological disorders.	When a child does not say the first single consonant or consonant cluster at the beginning of a word.	/own/ for phone	Not Available
		/ah-zit/ for closet
		/oo/ for shoe
		/indo/ for window
		/op/ for stop

Cluster Reduction/ Deletion (CR) or Cluster Substitution	When a child deletes or substitutes some or all parts of a cluster. Cluster deletion can be Total or Partial	Total	All Cluster Reduction and Substitution should be gone by 3 1/2 yrs.
		/op/ for stop
		/eight/ for straight
		/da/ for dark
		Partial
	Cluster Substitution	/top/ for stop
	/bwed/ for bread	/tate/ for straight
	/pwace/ for place	/dak/ for dark

Assimilation Processes – one sound changes to become more like another sound, usually its neighboring sound.
Phonological Process	What is Happening?	Examples	Gone by Age

Labial Assimilation	When a sound is changed to a labial sound (b, p, m, w) because of another labial sound in a word. Labial Assimilation can be Total or Partial	/wap/ for wax	Not Available
		/peb/ for pen
		/mob/ for moss
		Total
		/bub/ for bug
		Partial
		/bup/ for bug

Velar Assimilation	When a non-velar sound is changed to a velar (k, g, ng) sound. Velar Assimilation can be Total or Partial	/kug/ for cup	Not Available
		/keek/ for keep
		/goag/ for goat
		Total
		/kuck/ for cup
		Partial
		/kug/ for cup

Nasal Assimilation	When a non-nasal sound is changed to a nasal (m, n, ng) because of the influence of another nasal sound in the word. Nasal Assimilation can be Total or Partial	/mom/ for mop	Not Available
		/nong/ for long
		/non/ for nose
		Total
		/mom/ for mop
		Partial
		/mon/ for mop

Alveolar Assimilation	When a non-alveolar sound is changed to an alveolar sound (t, d, n, l, s, z)	/tot/ for toss	Not Available
		/suit/ for soup
		/dod/ for door
		Total
		/tot/ for top
		Partial
		/tod/ for top

Prevocalic Voicing	When a voiceless sound that comes before a vowel is changed to a voiced sound.	/den/ for ten	Not Available
		/zuit/ for suit
		/vight/ for fight
		/bie/ for pie

Postvocalic Devoicing	When a voiced stop, fricative, or affricate, that follows a vowel is changed to a voiceless sound (devoiced)	/pick/ for pig	Not Available
		/tuck/ for tug
		/sat/ for sad
		/bis/ for bees

Adapted from:
Pena-Brooks, Adriana, & Hegde, M.N. (2000). Assessment and treatment of articulation

and phonological disorders in children. Austin, TX, U.S.A.: PRO-ED, Inc.

All of these patterns should be gone by age 5.

If your child uses one of these phonological processes and they don't have any other speech problems, I would wait until they are just past the age that the pattern should be gone before talking with an SLP.

Why you ask? Because an SLP may not be able to qualify your child for therapy services until he/she is considered to be delayed for his/her age.

However, if your child has or had additional speech errors, developmental delays, or a family history of speech problems...

...it might not hurt to talk with an SLP sooner.

WHAT DOES IT AFFECT?

If your child uses phonological processes it can affect their:

spelling
writing
reading
phonological awareness
communication with others

WHAT DOES AN SLP DO TO HELP?

Speech-Language Pathologists use different techniques while working with children who use phonological processes. Along with normal drill during therapy, another technique is called auditory bombardment.

This is a technical phrase for "having a child listen to many words with the target sound in the same place."

Example: If the child was changing a /k/ sound to a /t/ sound

(fronting),the clinician would talk into a small amplification device while the child was wearing headphones that were hooked to the device and say:

cat car can cane cow key coat cap
kite cup comb king cave cage kiss cast

As an SLP I would read over these words at least 2-3 times at the beginning and end of each therapy session. At home you can do it more than this if you choose but I wouldn't recommend it for longer than 5 minutes because...

...if it gets too boring your child will never want to do it.

I would also suggest having simple pictures to go with each word.

They can be real photos or cartoons. If your child is in therapy, ask the SLP for a copy of pictures with words your child is working on.

If your child is not in therapy, there are many websites that offer free printable worksheets that target specific sounds.

See the "Resources We Like" section below for some sites that offer this.

WHAT CAN I DO ABOUT IT?

The best thing you can do if you hear your child use phonological processes is model the correct speech sounds for them. Repeat the sounds they said incorrectly and emphasize the correct pronunciation.

Example:

Child says:

"Look a doddy" (Look a doggy)

Parent says:

"Where's the dog?"

"He looks like a nice dog"

"Come here, doggy"

2-3 repetitions is sufficient making sure to emphasize the /g/ sound each time the word "dog" is said.

You can do auditory bombardment even if you don't have an amplification device and if you know what sounds to target. You can buy an amplification device at almost any electronic store if you do want to use one.

Giving your child multiple chances to hear how letters and word blends sound is very important in helping them overcome phonological processes.

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RESOURCES WE LIKE

Speech Therapy Information and Resources (STIR!) - Comprehensive information on all aspects of human communication and speech therapy, including speech, language, voice, stuttering and anatomy. Information and resources for children and adults with communication difficulties.

First-school - has words by letter. This site can give you ideas for words to put your own word list together, it has free printable worksheets and lessons.

Pro Teacher - this site also has A-Z words that can help you put your word list together.

My Vocabulary.com - excellent resource for word lists about everything.

...more coming soon.

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